Wild tigers are essentially solitary animals, even though they are known to occasionally socialize with each other. Most zoos exhibit tigers as solitary individuals, although there are exceptions. This asocial nature of tigers dictates the philosophy behind exhibiting tigers in captivity probably more than any other natural history characteristic of tigers. The following thumbnail sketch will hopefully provide additional insights to the behavior and ecology of wild tigers that may have consequences for their management in captivity.
What We Know About Wild Tigers
c Taman Safari IndonesiaThe tiger is the most written about animal in Asia, yet despite all of the articles about the species we are still left with missing pieces about its life in the wild. The first field study which described the behavior and ecology of wild Bengal tigers in Kanha National Park in central India was George Schaller's The Deer and the Tiger (1967). This study was followed by the "Nepal-Smithsonian Tiger Ecology Project" based in the Royal Chitwan National Park, initiated in 1973 by John Seidensticker and Kirti Tamang, who were followed through the years by Charles McDougal, Mel Sunquist, Hemanta Mishra, Eric Dinerstein, David Smith, and their Nepalese counterparts. Their long-term observations of known individual tigers provide the most detailed knowledge of social dynamics of wild tigers known to date. Other biologists have written extensively on Bengal tigers, the most notable of which are Arjan Singh's book Tiger Haven (1973), Valmik Thapar's Tiger: Portrait of a Predator (1986), Kailash Sankhala's Tiger! The Story of the Indian Tiger in 1977 and Return of the Tiger in 1978, Chuck McDougal's 1977 The Face of a Tiger, and Fiona and Mel Sunquist's Tiger Moon (1988). One of the more integrated accounts of the Bengal tiger is found in Peter Jackson's 1990 book Endangered Species: Tigers.
Our knowledge of other tiger subspecies is meager. The only information on Indochinese tigers is from Alan Rabinowitz's 1993 estimate of tiger distribution and densities in Thailand and from Nguyen Dang's and Pham Anh's 1992 census in Vietnam. Our knowledge of Sumatran tigers is limited to an anecdotal census conducted prior to 1985 by Charles Santiapillai and Widodo Ramono, and the results of a Population and Habitat Viability Analysis workshop coordinated by the Indonesian Department of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation and the IUCN/SSC CBSG (Tilson et al. 1994).
Other than anecdotal information about the distribution of South China tigers in China by Lu Houji (1987), there has been one brief survey by Koehler and Chinese specialists in 1991 who saw no tigers but found some tiger sign. Several reliable accounts of the distribution of Siberian tigers in the Sikhote-Alin Reserve in the Russian Far East were conducted in 1978 and 1984 by Dimitriy Pikunov and colleagues; an ongoing intensive field study of radio-collared Siberian tigers by Pikunov, Dale Miquelle, Yevgeny Smirnov, Maurice Hornocker and Howard Quigley will unravel much about the behavior and ecology of this subspecies.
Many of the world's experts on both wild and captive tigers, including many of the above, were brought together at the 1986 international tiger symposium, World Conservation Strategies for Tigers. The proceedings of this symposium were published in the book Tigers of the World: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management, and Conservation of an Endangered Species (Tilson and Seal 1987). The most current information on tigers is summarized in the IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group newsletter Cat News, and information on captive tiger programs is available in the IUCN/SSC CBSG Tiger GASP newsletter "Tiger Beat" [ed. note: now out of production]
The Life History of Wild Tigers
Adapted from the works cited above
Adult tigers are basically solitary animals that maintain relatively separate territories. In India and Nepal, where prey density is high, male tiger ranges are small (extend from 50-1,000 km2 ) compared to the huge ranges of male Siberian tigers in eastern Siberia (500-4,000 km2 ). Some overlapping occurs in tiger ranges. In general, the larger the range (as in Siberian tigers), the greater the overlap. Ranges of male tigers typically do not show any overlap, and males, by excluding other males from an area, ensure exclusive access to females for mating. For males, the critical resource is females, and each males's range usually encompasses the smaller range of two or more females.
The essentially asocial nature of tigers is reinforced by scent marks left throughout their territories to indicate presence and occupancy of the area. This scent marking is a passive form of defense, although fights do occur. The scent marks include urine sprayed on bushes and trees, feces and urine left in prominent places, scratch marks on trees, and scrapes made by raking backwards with the hind feet. Both sexes routinely freshen scent marks, and the frequency of marking is higher in zones where contact with neighboring tigers is likely. A tiger can tell whether a scent mark belongs to a familiar local resident or a stranger, a male or a female, and whether or not that female is in estrus. Their loud vocalizations, called roars, probably help them to find each other.
In tropical climates, where temperature fluctuations are small, tigresses may come into estrus throughout the year. In temperate regions, tigers are highly seasonal. Female estrous cycles occur about every 30 days, and the female is receptive for about 5-7 days during this cycle. During this receptivity, the female is extremely friendly toward the male, rubbing her body and face against the male until he attempts to mount. For the first few days, mounting attempts by the male are not successful. After this period, the pair copulates frequently ñ every 15-20 minutes at a peak ñ for five or six days. The male begins by grasping the loose skin of the female's nape in his jaws. Copulations last only 10-30 seconds, after which the female roars loudly, turns over on her back and lashes out at the straddling male with her paws, who has to leap clear to avoid injury. She then rolls vigorously on her back. They lay separately until the female initiates another bout. Finally they part. The frequent copulations are believed necessary to induce ovulation in the female.
Gestation is just over 100 days, depending on the subspecies. Cubs typically are born in some secluded area central to her range. Up to five or six cubs may be born, but more typically it is two or three. Only one or two of a litter generally survive the first two years of life. Cubs are born blind and depend exclusively upon their mother for nourishment for the next five or six months. Their weight at birth is about 1.5 kg.
When the cubs were about six months old, they accompany their mother to her kills to feed directly. In successive months, they slowly learn from her how to hunt and kill their own prey. Male cubs grow faster than their female siblings and by one year of age are noticeably larger and more independent, sometimes spending the day away from the mother. By 16 months of age, tigers have fully developed canines, but they are not very efficient at killing prey. By 18 months of age, both sexes start making their own kills. At this age males will leave to seek their own territory. Females tend to stay longer with their mother. The father plays no part in the upbringing of the cubs; in fact, it has been suggested that he may be a danger to them.
The young male tiger faces his most challenging time when he leaves his mother and seeks his own territory. Resident males have been observed to tolerate subordinate males in their range, but in general, resident males exclude other males. Most young males are forced to live in less favorable habitat, biding their time until they can displace a resident male and gain their own territory. This usually occurs when the resident male gets too old or suffers severe injury.
Young females leave their mother's territory, usually when the mother comes into estrus and becomes too aggressive. Sometimes, the mother allows one of her female cubs to settle in part of her territory. When that daughter becomes sexually mature, some time after she is three years old, she is likely to mate with her father. Other female cubs disperse further afield. During any female's lifetime, she will probably mate with a number of males, which is predicated on the male turnover rate within her range.
Tigers eat almost anything that moves, but in general, their most favored prey are medium-sized deer and wild boar. They usually capture their prey by stalking to within short distances and charging the unsuspecting animal from the rear. Small prey are killed by a neck bite. Larger prey are grasped by the jaws and forelegs, and once pulled down, the tiger grasps its throat and throttles it. Tigers can kill prey as large as a buffalo weighing 200 kg. It may eat 20-30 kg at a stretch, feeding intermittently for several days on large carcasses until it is consumed.
Tigers, like all predators, are not successful in every hunt, missing their prey more often than they catch it.
Characteristics of Tigers
Appearance Largest cat, unique striped coat. Universally recognized as a symbol of fierceness and wildness. Recognized as flagship species in zoo exhibits and in situ conservation programs.
Size Head-body length: 140-280 cm
Tail: 60-110 cm
Hind foot: 30-40 cm
Height at shoulder: 95-110 cm (depending on subspecies)
Weight The tiger is the largest of the living cats. Siberian tigers may weigh as much as 320 kg, but in general, captive males weigh about 175 kg and females about 125 kg. The lightest subspecies is the Sumatran; males weigh about 110 kg, and females 95 kg. The heaviest tiger recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records is a 410-kg captive male Siberian tiger.
Head Often carries the Chinese mark of wang or king, on the forehead.
Eyes Yellow iris (except for the blue eyes of white tigers) round pupils. Helped inspire William Blake's poem, "The Tyger". Night vision excellent; color vision poor.
Ears Back black with a conspicuous white spot, reputed to be visual beacon to help cubs follow their mother at night.
Legs Fore limbs more powerful than hind limbs, used for grabbing large prey prior to killing neck bite. Pads vary in size with age, resulting in inaccurate estimates when used in censusing wild populations.
Claws Retractable. If scratching logs are not provided, claws need routine trimming.
Tail Relatively long with stripes and rings. Tip usually black. No terminal tuft. Occasionally docked short in captivity from fast-closing guillotine shift doors.
Coat Coarse.
Summer coat short and flat, winter coat considerably longer, may be lighter, especially in northern parts of range.
Black stripes on a light reddish-yellow or ochre ground. Under parts and inner sides of limbs almost white, or with light yellow tinge.
Litter size Mean = 2.46 cubs/litter.
Sex ratio at birth is about 1:1. Neonatal mortality for both captive and wild populations is about 30-40%.
Cubs Average weight at birth: Siberian 1.2 kg; Sumatran 1.0 kg.
Weight at weaning (6-8 weeks): about 12-27 kg, depending on subspecies.
In the wild, the life of a tiger is brief. The lifespan of known wild tigers is not more than 15 years. Neonatal mortality, starvation or malnutrition, diseases and parasites, poisons, and injuries inflicted during fights with other tigers or in attacks on large dangerous prey further reduce the lifespan of wild tigers. The most vicious death occurs when a tiger steps into a wire snare set by poachers, who are probably responsible for more deaths of adult tigers than any other single agent.
Subspecific Variation
In 1968 Vladimir Mazak classified eight subspecies of tigers distinguished by several physical characteristics that include weight, color, and stripe pattern. Northern tigers are larger and lighter in color, southern island forms are smaller and darker. The Sumatran form has the most pronounced ruff around the head. The South China tiger has the fewest stripes; next in line are the Siberian, Bengal and Indochinese tigers; and the island subspecies have the most stripes. The Bali tiger (and to some extent the Javan tiger) had a single horizontal stripe on its forehead, three short double horizontal stripes on its head, and double looped stripes on its flanks and back. These subspecific variations are trivial ecological variables. Until molecular DNA studies establish valid evolutionary divergence within the species, biopolitical boundaries
Names for Tiger
English Tiger
Hindi Bagh, Sher
Nepalese Bagh
Indonesian Harimau, Macan
Malay Harimau
Chinese Wu, Lao Hu
Lao Seua
Vietnamese Cop
Burmese Kyar
Thai Seua
Korean Ho Lang-ee
Distribution an Status
(IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group 1997)
P. tigris altaica (Siberian, Amur or Northeast China tiger)
Range: SE Russia, NE China, N North Korea
Estimated to be about 430-500, some of which may be in China; none confirmed in North Korea. Forty years ago, estimated to be as low as 24 in Russia. Habitat loss, small population size, and particularly poaching are main threats. At least 60 tigers lost in Russia in 1992. Protected by the Law of the Russian Federation on Environmental Protection and Management, 1992.
P. tigris amoyensis (South China tiger)
Range: C and E China
Esimated by the IUCN to be about 20-30 (may be fewer or even extinct) across broad range which includes 21 reserves. Forty years ago, estimated to be about 4,000. Poaching, habitat loss and small population size are main threats. Most recent survey in 1991 found signs of tiger presence but made no direct observations of tigers. Protected by CITES Appendix I, 1981; Wild Animal Protection Law of the People's Republic of China, 1988: Category I.
P. tigris corbetti (Indochinese tiger)
Range: S China, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, peninsular Malaysia
Considered by the IUCN to be about 100-200 in Cambodia; present in Myanmar and Laos, but no number estimates; 250-600 in Thailand; 600-650 in peninsular Malaysia; and 200-300 in Vietnam. Protected by CITES Appendix I Malaysia 1978; Thailand, 1983; other countries not parties to CITES); Malaysia Protection of Wildlife Act, 1972/76; Thailand Wild Animals Preservation and Protection Act, 1960.
P. tigris sumatrae (Sumatran tiger)
Range: Sumatra (Indonesia)
Estimated at about 400-500 animals primarily in five national parks of Sumatra. The largest population is about 110 tigers in Gunung Leuser NP. At least 100 tigers in isolated non-protected areas. Poaching and small population size are main threats. Protected by CITES Appendix I, 1979; Wildlife Protection Regulation, 1931.
P. tigris tigris (Bengal tiger)
Range: India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, NW Myanmar
Estimated to be about 3,0600-4,700 living in over 100 protected areas, but skeptics say that this number is too high. Habitat shrinkage, fragmentation and the current resurgence in poaching are main threats. Protected by CITES Appendix I (Nepal, 1976; India, 1976; Bangladesh, 1984); and various range country regulations.
Extinct
Subspecies
P. tigris (Bali tiger)
Former range: Bali (Indonesia)
Considered extinct in the 1940s. The last wild individual tiger was killed at Sumbar Kima, West Bali on 27 September 1937.
P. tigris sondaica (Javan tiger)
Former range: Java (Indonesia)
Considered extinct in 1980s. Rumors persist that tigers roam mountainous areas in West Java. A 1993 remote-census photo survey in Meru Betiri NP found no evidence of tigers.
P. tigris virgata (Caspian tiger)
Former range: N Afghanistan, N Iran, E Turkey, W Mongolia, Russia (C Asiatic area)
Officially declared extinct by IUCN/SSC 1970s. It was probably lost many years before this.
Management
of
Tigers
Adapted from M. Bush, L. Phillips, and R. Montali, 1987. Clinical management of captive tigers. In: Tigers of the World: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management, and Conservation of an Endangered Species. Noyes Publ., Park Ridge, NJ. With a section by N. Reindl, Minnesota Zoo, and significant contributions and additions by D. Armstrong, Omaha's Henry Doorly Zoo.
Overview
Although tigers are displayed in most zoos, and they have a long history in captivity, surprisingly little medical data have been published. Most published reports concern medical problems that are preventable, given the present state of the science of zoological medicine, namely dietary related deficiencies and diseases or viral infections.
Previous documents on medical support of endangered species have been formulated under the usual heading of "Disease." This inadvertently places the veterinarian in a reactive rather than an interactive role as a member of the conservation team. Our approach is to consider an overall medical program for the tiger that will not only minimize disease but improve overall viability. The emerging role of medical programs is to shift strategies from the care of individuals to the care of species, subspecies, and populations.
The medical and surgical care of captive tigers has become easier with advancements in other areas, especially in anesthesia and anesthetic techniques. Major nutritional problems are almost nonexistent due to the increased understanding of dietary needs including proper ratios of vitamins and minerals. The majority of contagious infectious diseases can be prevented by appropriate vaccines. Parasites (external and internal) can be effectively controlled or eliminated with newer drugs.
The present challenge to zoo staff, particularly the veterinarian, is to establish and maintain a strong and aggressive preventive medical program. Once this is instituted and functioning, the major medical problems encountered will be the geriatric problems of an aging collection.
Medical management of captive tigers requires the integration of preventive medical programs, clinical medicine, nutrition, husbandry practices, and pathological surveillance. The preventive programs have matured to meet the needs of the species. We continue to promote medical programs that are aggressive rather than reactive. The following protocols outline the necessary components of such a program for the medical management of captive tigers.
The scope of preventive medical procedures is extensive, from the time the animal enters the collection (i.e., birth or transfer) to its disposition to another zoo, or to a complete post-mortem examination when it dies. Specific preventive factors relate to diet, exhibit design, behavioral needs, cleaning procedures, pest control and the more medically oriented procedures such as vaccinations, parasite control and quarantine.
In dealing with tigers, it has been stated repeatedly they are just big domestic cats that share many anatomical, physiological, behavioral, and medical commonalities. Fortunately, this allows veterinarians to extrapolate from experiences and expertise dealing with the domestic counterpart. It is best not to be overzealous in utilizing this comparison since tigers are unique animals; new problems and new techniques should be approached through careful planning and good clinical judgment. One should always be ready for the unexpected.
Shipping
and
Quarantine
The long-term management of the health of tigers begins before the animal arrives with appropriate planning of the management program and with arrangements to transfer and receive the animal that protect its health.
Shipping Procedures
Shipment procedures for tigers require good organization to minimize stress to the animal. Before shipment the health status of the tiger is evaluated. If possible, the animal should have access to its shipping crate for two weeks prior to shipment to become familiar with it. The tiger should definitely be fed in it. In the United States, the design of the crate must meet the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) requirements and be strong enough to safely hold the tiger (see Crate Specifications below). For international shipments, International Air Transport Association (IATA) requirements must be met, and these provide reasonable guidelines for most tiger transfers. If an extended trip is anticipated (more than 12 hr), provisions should be made for someone to offer water and food to the animal while in transit. In reality, however, tigers are unlikely to feed in transport and can easily go for a few days without food. Water is more crucial, and arrangements must be made to provide an adequate water supply for tigers in transit over 12 hours.
When a tiger is moved, one of its keepers should accompany it to care for it in transit if the transport involves more than one transfer en route, if travel time from airport drop-off to airport pick-up is more than 12 hours, and if it is a very young cub. A keeper familiar with the tiger may help it adjust to its new environment. Husbandry, dietary and medical records should be transmitted to the receiving institution prior to shipment, and complete copies of these records should accompany the tiger during shipment. It is important that any tiger tranquilized for shipment be completely awake and standing before it travels. Tigers are lost even under the best intentions, as shown in this excerpt from the Los Angeles Times, Wednesday, March 25, 1992.
DEATH OF RARE MALAYSIAN TIGER ON FLIGHT TO U.S. IS REVEALED
SAN DIEGO--A rare Malaysian tiger, one of only about 200 in existence, died while being flown from Kuala Lumpur to Los Angeles after being placed by Malaysian authorities in a crate that was partly wrapped in plastic and barely larger than the animal itself, said authorities. The 100-pound female tiger was one of two 10-month-old sister cubs that were destined for the San Diego Zoo.
The animal was ailing--if not already dead--when a Malaysian Airlines 747 stopped for two hours in Honolulu and ground cargo handlers said they smelled something foul. But before a veterinarian for the U.S. Department of Agriculture could arrive at the airport to check on the animal's condition, the airliner already had taken off for Los Angeles.
When the plane landed at Los Angeles on Feb. 19, concluding the 24-hour trip, the cub was dead, either from dehydration or because it apparently had overheated in its small wooden cage, said Dr. Ron DeHaven, animal care supervisor for the USDA in Sacramento.
"The cage was barely larger than the animal itself," DeHaven said. "It literally could not stand up in the crate. There was no ventilation. It was a solid wooden crate except for one end, the tail end, where there was heavy gauge wire. "But the crate was wrapped in plastic halfway up, so that half was cut off to ventilation," he said. The animal was 43 inches long from the crown of its head to the base of its tail, and the cage was just 46 inches long, a USDA inspection showed. The cage was 23 inches in height and 22 inches wide.
A shipping crate should be well ventilated, drain well, and absorbent bedding be provided to prevent the tiger from lying in urine. The crate must be strong enough and large enough for the tiger, but the size should allow easy movement and access through doorways. Particular attention should be paid to the size of doors on all airplanes on which the tiger may be transported.
Crate
Specifications
(N. Reindl) All shipping containers for tigers other than cubs of under 15 kg should be constructed of steel or 1/8" thick aluminum. If wood is used, all interior surfaces must be metal-lined and free from sharp projections and edges. Basic design allows free flow of air through both ends of the container, but the design must be such that the tiger can not reach out to injure attendants. Use of a double door design on each end allows for a barred end gate, which provides containment for the animals. A second thin panel of expanded metal provides safety for the handlers working around the crate, yet can be lifted as needed to service the animal if delays occur or treatment is necessary. The doors on each end of the crate should be guillotine style to facilitate animal
Crate Size Inside Dimensions (in cm) Outside Dimensions
Length Width Height Length Width Height
Large: adult male 183 56 76 198 74 97
Medium: adult female 152 51 66 168 69 86
Small: sub-adults 122 46 61 137 64 81
X-small: cubs 91 41 56 107 58 76
Schematic view of a typical shipping crate (U.S. Dep. Agric., 1980).
A large crate loaded with an adult tiger can weigh over 400 kg. It is essential that adequate handles are provided along the full length of each side of the container and that the bottom is raised with skids to allow the use of mechanized lifting equipment (fork lift). The International Animal Transport Association (IATA) standards follow.
USDA
REQUIREMENTS
(from Live Animal Regulations, International Air Transport Association, 1991)
Principles of Design
The following principles of design shall be met in addition to the General Container Requirements outlined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (see below).
The front end shall be formed of steel welded mesh or strong iron bars. The bars must be spaced in a manner which will prevent the animal from pushing its forelegs through the spaces between the bars. A sliding door shall be constructed at the rear, of the same material as the container, adequately secured to prevent accidental opening.
The floor shall be constructed in grille form over a liquid-proof tray in a manner to permit the animal's excreta to fall into the tray. When a grill floor is not feasible, the floor of the container must be liquid-proof and be covered with sufficient material to absorb the animal's excreta.
To ensure adequate ventilation, air inlets must be provided at heights which will provide through ventilation at all levels, particularly when the animal is in a prone position. Ventilation holes, of approximately 2.5 cm (1 in) diameter, shall be positioned on the sides and top as indicated in the diagram. These holes may be screened on the exterior with fine nylon or similar mesh if such covering will not unduly restrict the amount of air entering the container. While loosely woven burlap may also be used when it is necessary to quiet the animal, great care must be taken to ensure that air circulation is not restricted. Burlap covering must be readily removable to allow increased air flow, as necessary.
To prevent disturbance to the animal and to provide protection for the handling personnel, wooden slotted shutters with adequate ventilation slots or holes should be placed over the front opening, approximately 7.5 cm (3 in) away from steel weld mesh or iron bars. Loosely woven burlap or fine nylon or similar mesh, stretched over the front opening, with a batten on the bottom, can be used in lieu of the wooden shutters.
The dimensions of the container shall allow the animal to turn completely around freely, or shall prevent it from turning at all. The height shall provide adequate space for the animal to stand upright with head extended, the length shall permit it to lay in the full prone position. Actual container dimensions vary according to species and size of animal.
Food and water containers with adequate safe access for replenishment must be made available by the shipper, taking into account the duration of the flight.
Where more than one animal is to be carried in a container, multiples of the above provisions shall apply. Divisions can take the form of partitions such as metal grills. Compatible animals need not be separated by a partition when it is probable they will not harm each other during shipment.
Quarantine Procedures
Prior to the introduction of any new tiger to an existing population, the newcomer should be quarantined for at least 30 days. Ideally the tiger will be held in a separate facility and cared for by keepers that do not care for other felids. Unfortunately, this may not always be possible. In these instances, the tiger should be separated from other cats as much as possible, and keepers should work with it after they have finished all work with the existing collection. Personnel working with or near a quarantined cat should wear coveralls and rubber boots designated for the quarantine area. A foot bath in and out of quarantine helps prevent potential contamination. The quarantine area should have drainage separate from other cat facilities. Separate cleaning tools that are not removed from the quarantine area are a necessity.
Quarantine protocol for tigers (see Table Checklist) should include a parasite screening, complete physical examination, collection of a blood sample including serum sample banking, and preventive medical procedures such as immunizations and dental calculus removal. An animal should be observed carefully during the quarantine period, and factors such as the animal's behavior and appetite, and subtle symptoms of potential disease should be recorded daily.
The quarantine period allows observation and testing to monitor the animal for infectious diseases and/or parasites. The 30-day period is adequate to cover the incubation period of most infectious diseases. Animals newly captured from the wild may require a longer quarantine, particularly when treatment of parasites or disease problems is required.
The evaluation of a new tiger begins with a review of its past medical history, which should be part of the health certificate. It is unacceptable to send an animal to a new collection without sending its medical history. These data will alert the clinician to previous and potential problems and document past vaccinations, anesthetic doses, medical procedures, identification methods, fecal examinations and blood values. Body weights should be obtained on all tigers entering and leaving quarantine. It is recommended that each cat be individually identified with a subcutaneous microchip (transponder) and a tattoo of the studbook number. The placement of transponders and the location of tattoos have been directed by the American Zoo and Aquariums Association (AZA) Tiger Species Survival Plan (SSP) but may undergo review (especially the transponder placement).
Change in Diet
When in quarantine, the tiger's diet is gradually changed to the new diet if different from the original. Any dietary alterations should be gradual to minimize gastrointestinal upset. It is not unusual to have a newly arrived tiger stop eating because of the environmental change. The Minnesota Zoo reported an adult female that refused to come into holding from her exhibit and did not eat for 19 days; an adult male from the Moscow Zoo never did switch over to zoo diet for its entire life. In some cases it is advantageous to have some of the animal's previous diet accompany it if the food is not available locally. To stimulate appetite, whole carcasses of rabbits or chickens may be offered.
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE REGULATIONS
USDA introduced new regulations on 15 January 1980 relating to the importation of pet birds into the United States. These requirements also pertain to tigers.
Rules
Animals imported into the United States must be accompanied by a veterinary health certificate;
a request for quarantine space must be made by the importer and accompanied by a reservation fee prior to importation;
a 30-day quarantine period at owner's expense will be completed at specified quarantine facilities;
these rules provide for re-entry of pet birds properly identified, of United States origin which have been out of the country, when accompanied by a veterinary health certificate issued prior to departure from the United States, and the bird is identified by a leg band with the number affixed to the health certificate.
USG-02
No warm-blooded animals, including birds, can be presented to a carrier more than four hours before the aircraft's scheduled departure time. If prior arrangements are made, a six-hour maximum is acceptable.
USG-03
There are specific rules, within the USA, for the animal holding areas in cargo terminals. According to the Animal Welfare Act, a temperature range of 7.2 C (45 F) to 23.9 C (75 F) is normally acceptable. Note a temperature range of between 23.9 C (75 F) to 29.5 C (85 F) is acceptable for a four hour time period only. Animals being moved between the animal holding areas in cargo terminals and planes on the ramp may be subjected to temperatures exceeding 29.5 C (85 F) or 7.2 C (45 F) for no more than 45 minutes.
USG-04
Animal shipments to, from or via the United States must have written instructions concerning the food and water requirements of the animal affixed to the outside of the container.
USG-05
All containers for dogs and cats must be of such a size to allow the animals to turn around.
USG-06
For the carriage of warm-blooded animals, there must be ventilation openings on two opposite walls, which openings are at least 16% of the area of each wall, or ventilation openings on all four walls, which openings are at least 8% of the area of each wall; and at least one-third of the minimum ventilation area must be in the lower half of the container and one-third in the upper half. In addition, for dogs and cats, if there are ventilation openings on three walls they must be at least 8% of the area of two opposite walls and 50% of the area of the third wall: the total combined ventilation opening area must be at least 14% of the total combined area of all four walls. The outside of the wall with ventilation openings must have a rim or other separation device 1.9 cm (3/4 in) deep to prevent obstruction of ventilation openings.
USG-07
Animal shipments to, from, or via the United States must be marked or labeled on the top and on one or more sides of the container with the words "Wild Animal" in letters not less than 2.5 cm (1 in) in height and arrows or markings indicating the upright position.
USG-08
A maximum of one live dog or cat, six months or more of age, or a maximum of one live puppy, eight weeks to six months of age and weighing over 9 kg (20 lb), shall be transported in a primary enclosure. Two live puppies and kittens, eight weeks to six months of age, but not weighing over 9 kg (20 lb) each and of comparable size, may be carried in the same primary enclosure. Weaned live puppies or kittens less than eight weeks of age and of comparable size, or puppies or kittens which are less than eight weeks of age, and litter-mates accompanied by their dam, may be shipped in the same primary enclosure to research laboratories.
USG-09
The U.S. Animal Welfare Act, Section 3.86(a), requires that one-third of the container ventilation holes must be in the lower half of the container.
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